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Zionism
Movement supporting a Jewish state in Palestine
For other uses, see Zionism (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Ziaism.
Zionism[a] is an ethnocultural nationalist[b] movement that emerged in Europe in the late 19th century and aimed for the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people through the colonization of Palestine,[2] an area roughly corresponding to the Land of Israel in Judaism,[3] and of central importance in Jewish history.
Zionists wanted to create a Jewish state in Palestine with as much land, as many Jews, and as few Palestinian Arabs as possible.[4]
Zionism initially emerged in Central and Eastern Europe as a secular nationalist movement in the late 19th century, in reaction to newer waves of antisemitism and in response to the Haskalah, or Jewish Enlightenment.[5][6] The arrival of Zionist settlers to Palestine during this period is widely seen as the start of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.
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Few names from history inspire such immediate and emphatic revulsion as that of Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. His hands are stained with the blood of millions killed in the devastation of the Second World War and the horror of the Holocaust. But Hitler was not born a brutal tyrant, he became one. Explore Hitler's life and discover the road that led to destruction. His father, Alois, was a customs official while his mother, Klara, came from a poor peasant family.The Zionist claim to Palestine was based on the notion that the Jews' historical right to the land outweighed that of the Arabs.
In the Balfour Declaration established Britain's support for the movement. In , the British Mandate for Palestine governed by Britain explicitly privileged Jewish settlers over the local Palestinian population.
In , the State of Israel was established and the first Arab-Israeli war broke out. During the war, Israel expanded its territory to control over 78% of Mandatory Palestine. As a result of the Palestinian expulsion and flight, an estimated , of , Palestinians in the territory remained, forming a Palestinian minority in Israel.[7]
The Zionist mainstream has historically included liberal, labor, revisionist, and cultural Zionism, while groups like Brit Shalom and Ihud have been dissident factions within the movement.[8] Mainstream Zionist groups for the most part differ more in style than substance, having in some cases adopted similar strategies to achieve their goals, such as violence or compulsory transfer to deal with the Palestinians.[9]Religious Zionism is a variant of Zionist ideology which brings together secular nationalism and religious conservatism.
Advocates of Zionism have viewed it as a national liberation movement for the repatriation of an indigenous people (which were subject to persecution and share a national identity through national consciousness), to the homeland of their ancestors.[10][11][12] Similarly, anti-Zionism has many aspects, which include criticism of Zionism as a colonialist,[13]racist,[14] or exceptionalist ideology or as a settler colonialist movement.[15][16]
Terminology
The term "Zion" was first associated with a mass movement as the Hovevei Zion (lit 'Lovers of Zion') also known as the Hibbat Zion (lit.
'Love of Zion'), that came together at the Katowice Conference, inspired by Leon Pinsker's pamphlet Auto-Emancipation. The first use of the term as an -ism is attributed to the Austrian Nathan Birnbaum, in an article in the periodical Selbst-Emancipation, itself named after Pinsker's pamphlet.[18][19][20] This form was subsequently popularized by Herzl in convening the First Zionist Congress and the Zionist Organization founded there.[citation needed]
Zion or Mount Zion, is a term used in the Hebrew Bible[21][22] and a hill in Jerusalem, a metonym and poetical name widely symbolizing the Land of Israel.[23]
Beliefs
National self-determination
See also: Nationalism, Rise of nationalism in Europe, and Self-determination
Fundamental to Zionism is the belief that Jews constitute a nation, and have a moral and historic right and need for self-determination in Palestine.[c] This belief developed out of the experiences of European Jewry, which the early Zionists believed demonstrated the danger inherent to their status as a minority.
Ebrei sionisti hitler biography death: Appunto di storia contemporanea per le scuole superiori in cui viene descritto il concetto di razza, che è il cardine del nazismo di Adolf Hitler in Germania.
In contrast to the Zionist notion of nationhood, the Judaic sense of being a nation was rooted in religious beliefs of unique chosenness and divine providence, rather than in ethnicity. Specifically, prayers emphasized distinctiveness from other nations where a connection to Eretz Israel and the anticipation of restoration were based on messianic beliefs and religious practices, not modern nationalist conceptions.
Claim to a Jewish demographic majority and a Jewish state in Palestine
The Zionist claim to Palestine was based on the notion that Jews had a historical right to the land which outweighed the rights of the Arabs.[27] Israeli historian Yosef Gorny argues that the establishment of a Jewish demographic majority was an essential aspect of Zionism and depended on annulling the status of the Arabs.[28] Gorny argues that the Zionist movement regarded Arab motives in Palestine as lacking both moral and historical significance.
According to Israeli historian Simha Flapan, the view expressed by the proclamation "there was no such thing as Palestinians" is a cornerstone of Zionist policy. This perspective was also shared by those on the far-left of the Zionist movement, including Martin Buber and other members of Brit Shalom.[d] British officials supporting the Zionist effort also held similar beliefs.[e][f][35]
Unlike other forms of nationalism, the Zionist claim to Palestine was aspirational and required a mechanism by which the claim could be realized.
The territorial concentration of Jews in Palestine and the subsequent goal of establishing a Jewish majority there was the main mechanism by which Zionist groups sought to realize this claim.[37] By the time of the Arab Revolt, the political differences between the various Zionist groups had shrunk further, with almost all Zionist groups seeking a Jewish state in Palestine.[39] While not every Zionist group openly called for the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine, every group in the Zionist mainstream was wedded to the idea of establishing a Jewish demographic majority there.[40]
In pursuing a Jewish demographic majority, the Zionist movement encountered the demographic problem posed by the presence of the local Arab population, which was predominantly non-Jewish.
The practical issue of establishing a Jewish state in a majority non-Jewish region was an issue of fundamental importance for the Zionist movement.[41] Zionists used the term "transfer" as a euphemism for the removal, or what would now be called ethnic cleansing of the Palestinian population.[43] According to Morris, the idea of transfer was to play a large role in Zionist ideology from the inception of the movement and was seen as the main method of maintaining the "Jewishness" of the Zionist's state.[44] He explains that "transfer" was "inevitable and inbuilt into Zionism" and that a land which was primarily Arab could not be transformed into a Jewish state without displacing the Arab population.[45] Further, the stability of the Jewish state could not be ensured given the Arab population's fear of displacement.
He explains that this would be the primary source of conflict between the Zionist movement and the Arab population.[46]
The concept of "transfer" had a long pedigree in Zionist thought, with moral considerations rarely entering into the discussions of what was viewed as a logical solution—opposition to transferring the Arab population outside Palestine was typically expressed on practical, rather than moral grounds.[47] The concept of removing the non-Jewish population from Palestine was a notion that garnered support across the entire spectrum of Zionist groups, including its farthest left factions,[fn 1][50] from early in the movement's development.[51] "Transfer" was not only seen as desirable but also as an ideal solution by the Zionist leadership.
Zionism, antisemitism and an "existential need" for self-determination
From the perspective of some early Zionist thinkers, Jews living amongst non-Jews suffer from impediments which can only be addressed by rejecting the Jewish identity which developed while living amongst non-Jews.[55] Accordingly, the early Zionists sought to develop a nationalist Jewish political life in a territory where Jews constitute a demographic majority.[page&#;needed][page&#;needed][g] The early Zionist thinkers saw the integration of Jews into non-Jewish society as both unrealistic (or insufficient to address the deficiencies associated with demographic minority status) and undesirable, since assimilation was accompanied by the dilution of Jewish cultural distinctiveness.
Ebrei sionisti hitler biography wikipedia After serving with the German military in World War I , Hitler capitalized on economic woes, popular discontent and political infighting during the Weimar Republic to rise through the ranks of the Nazi Party. In a series of ruthless and violent actions—including the Reichstag Fire and the Night of Long Knives—Hitler took absolute power in Germany by After the tide of war turned against him, Hitler committed suicide in a Berlin bunker in April After his father, Alois, retired as a state customs official, young Adolf spent most of his childhood in Linz, the capital of Upper Austria. After his mother, Klara, died in , Hitler moved to Vienna, where he pieced together a living painting scenery and monuments and selling the images.Some Zionist intellectuals, such as Yitzhak Elazari Volcani, even expressed an "understanding" of antisemitism, echoing its beliefs:
Anti-Semitism is not a psychosis nor is it a lie. Anti-Semitism is a necessary outcome of a collision between two kinds of selfhood [or 'essence']. Hate is dependent upon the amount of 'agents of fermentation' that are pushed into the general organism [i.e., the non-Jewish group], whether they are active in it and irritate it, or are neutralized in it.
In this sense, Zionism did not seek to challenge antisemitism, but rather accepted it as a reality.
The Zionist solution to the perceived deficiencies of diasporic life (or the "Jewish Question") was dependent on the territorial concentration of Jews in Palestine, with the longer-term goal of establishing a Jewish demographic majority there.
Racial conceptions of Jewish identity
Main article: Racial conceptions of Jewish identity in Zionism
In the late 19th century, amid attempts to apply science to notions of race, the founders of Zionism (Theodor Herzl and Max Nordau, among others) sought to reformulate conceptions of Jewishness in terms of racial identity and the "race science" of the time.
They believed that this concept would allow them to build a new framework for collective Jewish identity, and thought that biology might provide "proof" for the "ethnonational myth of common descent" from the biblical land of Israel. Countering antisemitic claims that Jews were both aliens and a racially inferior people, these Zionists drew on and appropriated elements from various race theories,[h] to argue that only a home for the Jewish people could enable the physical regeneration of the Jewish people and a renaissance of pride in their ancient cultural traditions.
The contrasting assimilationist viewpoint was that Jewishness consisted in an attachment to Judaism as a religion and culture.
Ebrei sionisti hitler biography This page is subject to the extended confirmed restriction related to the Arab-Israeli conflict. Zionism [ a ] is an ethnocultural nationalist [ b ] movement that emerged in Europe in the late 19th century and aimed for the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people through the colonization of Palestine , [ 2 ] an area roughly corresponding to the Land of Israel in Judaism , [ 3 ] and of central importance in Jewish history. Zionists wanted to create a Jewish state in Palestine with as much land, as many Jews , and as few Palestinian Arabs as possible. Zionism initially emerged in Central and Eastern Europe as a secular nationalist movement in the late 19th century, in reaction to newer waves of antisemitism and in response to the Haskalah , or Jewish Enlightenment. The Zionist claim to Palestine was based on the notion that the Jews' historical right to the land outweighed that of the Arabs.Both the orthodox and liberal establishments often rejected this idea. Subsequently, Zionist and non-Zionist Jews vigorously debated aspects of this proposition in terms of the merits or otherwise of diaspora life. While Zionism embarked on its project of social engineering in Mandatory Palestine, ethnonationalist politics on the European continent strengthened and, by the s, some German Jews, acting defensively, asserted Jewish collective rights by redefining Jews as a race after Nazism rose to power.
The Holocaust's policies of genocidalethnic cleansing utterly discredited race as the lethal product of pseudoscience.
With the establishment of Israel in , the "ingathering of the exiles", and the Law of Return, the question of Jewish origins and biological unity came to assume particular importance during early nation building.
Conscious of this, Israeli medical researchers and geneticists were careful to avoid any language that might resonate with racial ideas. Themes of "blood logic" or "race" have nevertheless been described as a recurrent feature of modern Jewish thought in both scholarship and popular belief.[i] Despite this, many aspects of the role of race in the formation of Zionist concepts of a Jewish identity were rarely addressed until recently.[71]
Questions of how political narratives impact the work of population genetics, and its connection to race, have a particular significance in Jewish history and culture.[j] Genetic studies on the origins of modern Jews have been criticized as "being designed or interpreted in the framework of a 'Zionist narrative'" and as an essentialist approach to biology[k] in a similar manner to criticism of the interpretation of archaeology in the region.[l] According to Israeli historian of science Nurit Kirsh and Israeli geneticist Raphael Falk, the interpretation of the genetic data has been unconsciously influenced by Zionism and anti-Zionism.[m] Falk wrote that every generation has witnessed efforts by both Zionist and non-Zionist Jews to seek a link between national and biological aspects of Jewish identity.[n][undue weight? &#; discuss]
Conquest of labor
After the turn of the century, a more ideologically motivated wave of immigrants arrived.
With them, the Zionist movement began to emphasize the so-called "conquest of labor," the belief that the employment of exclusively Jewish labor was the pre-condition for the development of an independent Jewish society in Palestine. The goal was to build a "pure Jewish settlement" in Palestine on the basis of " per cent Jewish labor" and the claim to an exclusively Jewish, highly productive economy.[72] The Zionist leadership aimed to establish a fully autonomous and independent Jewish economic sector to create a new type of Jewish society.
Hitler biography book This failed career move left Hitler a lonely and distraught young man. In Hitler moved to Munich where he lived until the war broke out and he volunteered to serve in the German Army. During the war, Hitler was injured twice, once in and again in , the second time as a victim of a gas attack. For his bravery and valor, he earned the Iron Cross twice and was promoted to the rank of corporal. Hitler returned to Munich after the war, dispirited, disillusioned, and angry over the Versailles settlement.This new society was intended to reverse the traditional economic structure seen in the Jewish Diaspora, characterized by a high number of middlemen and a scarcity of productive workers. By developing fundamental sectors such as industry, agriculture, and mining, the goal was to "normalize" Jewish life which had grown "abnormal" as a result of living amongst non-Jews.[74] Most of the Zionist leadership saw it as imperative to employ strictly Jewish workers in order to ensure the Jewish character of the colonies.
Another factor, according to Benny Morris, was the worry that that "employment of Arabs would lead to 'Arab values' being passed on to Zionist youth and nourish the colonists' tendency to exploit and abuse their workers", as well as security concerns.
The employment of exclusively Jewish labor was also intended to avoid the development of a national conflict in conjunction with a class-based conflict.
The Zionist leadership believed that by excluding Arab workers they would stimulate class conflict only within Arab society and prevent the Jewish-Arab national conflict from attaining a class dimension. While the Zionist settlers of the First Aliyah had ventured to create a "pure Jewish settlement," they did grow to rely on Arab labor due to the lack of availability of Jewish laborers during this period.[page&#;needed] With the arrival of the more ideologically driven settlers of the second aliyah, the idea of "avoda ivrit" would become more central.
The future leaders of the Zionist movement saw an existential threat in the employment of Arab labor, motivating the movement to work towards a society based on purely Jewish labor.
Negation of the life in the Diaspora
Zionism rejected traditional Judaic definitions of what it means to be Jewish, but struggled to offer a new interpretation of Jewish identity independent of rabbinical tradition.
Jewish religion is viewed as an essentially negative factor, even in religious Zionist ideology, and as responsible for the diminishing status of Jews living as a minority.[82] Responding to the challenges of modernity, Zionism sought to replace religious and community institutions with secular-nationalistic ones.[83] Indeed, Zionism maintained primarily the outward symbols of Jewish tradition, redefining them in a nationalistic context.
Zionism saw itself as bringing Jews into the modern world by redefining what it means to be Jewish in terms of identification with a sovereign state, rather than Judaic faith and tradition.
Zionism and secular Jewish identity
Zionism sought to reconfigure Jewish identity and culture in nationalist and secular terms.[87] This new identity would be based on a rejection of the life of exile.
Zionism portrayed the Diaspora Jew as mentally unstable, physically frail, and prone to engaging in transient businesses. They were seen as detached from nature, purely materialistic, and focused solely on their personal gains. In contrast, the vision for the new Jew was radically different: an individual of strong moral and aesthetic values, not shackled by religion, driven by ideals and willing to challenge degrading circumstances; a liberated, dignified person eager to defend both personal and national pride.[88]
The Zionist goal of reframing of Jewish identity in secular-nationalist terms meant primarily the decline of the status of religion in the Jewish community.[89] Prominent Zionist thinkers frame this development as nationalism serving the same role as religion, functionally replacing it.[90] Zionism sought to make Jewish ethnic-nationalism the distinctive trait of Jews rather than their commitment to Judaism.[page&#;needed] Zionism instead adopted a racial understanding of Jewish identity.[92] Framed this way, Jewish identity is only secondarily a matter of tradition or culture.[93] Zionist nationalism embraced pan-Germanic ideologies, which stressed the concept of das völk: people of shared ancestry should pursue separation and establish a unified state.
Zionist thinkers view the movement as a "revolt against a tradition of many centuries" of living parasitically at the margins of Western society. Indeed, Zionism was uncomfortable with the term "Jewish," associating it with passivity, spirituality and the stain of "galut".
Instead, Zionist thinkers preferred the term "Hebrew" to describe their identity. In Zionist thought, the new Jew would be productive and work the land, in contrast to the diaspora Jew. Zionism linked the term "Jewish" with negative characteristics prevalent in European anti-Semitic stereotypes, which Zionists believed could be remedied only through sovereignty.
Revival of the Hebrew language
Main article: Revival of the Hebrew language
See also: Modern Hebrew, Hebraization of surnames, and Hebraization of Palestinian place names
The revival of the Hebrew language in Eastern Europe as a secular literary medium marked a significant cultural shift among Jews, who per Judaic tradition used Hebrew only for religious purposes.[95] The primary motivator for establishing modern Hebrew as a national language was the sense of legitimacy it gave the movement, by suggesting a connection between the Jews of ancient Israel and the Jews of the Zionist movement.
These developments are seen in Zionist historiography as a revolt against tradition, with the development of Modern Hebrew providing the basis on which a Jewish cultural renaissance might develop.
Zionists generally preferred to speak Hebrew, which had flourished as a spoken language in the ancient Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during the period from about to &#;BCE,[97] and continued to be used in some parts of Judea during the Second Temple period and up until &#;CE.
It is the language of the Hebrew Bible and the Mishnah, central texts in Judaism. Hebrew was largely preserved throughout later history as the main liturgical language of Judaism.
The revival of the Hebrew language and the establishment of Modern Hebrew is most closely associated with the linguist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda and the Committee of the Hebrew Language (later replaced by the Academy of the Hebrew Language).[98]
History
Main article: History of Zionism
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Zionism.
Historical and religious background
See also: Jewish history, History of Israel, History of Palestine, and History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel
The transformation of a religious and primarily passive connection between Jews and Palestine into an active, secular, nationalist movement arose in the context of ideological developments within modern European nations in the 19th century.
The concept of the "return" remained a powerful symbol within religious Jewish belief which emphasized that their return should be determined by Divine Providence rather than human action. The religious Judaic notion of being a nation was distinct from the modern European notion of nationalism. Ultra-Orthodox and Reform[] Some Jewish groups and authorities opposed collective Jewish settlement in Palestine.[o] Ultra-orthodox Jews viewed it as a violation of the three oaths sworn to God: not to force their way into the homeland, not to hasten the end times, and not to rebel against other nations.
They believed that any attempt to achieve redemption through human actions, rather than divine intervention and the coming of the Messiah, constituted a rebellion against divine will and a dangerous heresy.[p]
The cultural memory of Jews in the diaspora revered the Land of Israel. Religious tradition held that a future messianic age would usher in their return as a people, a 'return to Zion' commemorated particularly at Passover and in Yom Kippur prayers.