John desmond bernal biography of william butler

J. D. Bernal

Irish scientist, pioneer of X-ray crystallography in biology (–)

John Desmond BernalFRS[7] (; 10 May &#;– 15 September ) was an Irish scientist who pioneered the use of X-ray crystallography in molecular biology. He published extensively on the history of science. In addition, Bernal wrote popular books on science and society.

He was a communist activist and a member of the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB).

Education and early life

His family was Irish, with a mix of Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and Sephardic Jewish on his father's side[8] (his grandfather Jacob Genese, properly Ginesi, had adopted the family name Bernal of his paternal grandmother around ).[7] His father Samuel Bernal had been raised as a Catholic in Limerick and after graduating from Albert Agricultural College spent 14 years in Australia before returning to County Tipperary to buy a farm, Brookwatson, near Nenagh where Bernal was brought up.

His American mother, née Elizabeth Miller, whose mother was from Antrim, was a graduate of Stanford University and a journalist and had converted to Catholicism.[9][10] Elizabeth was raised Protestant and would send John to a Protestant school in his youth.[11]

Bernal was educated in England first for one term at Stonyhurst College, which he hated and so was moved to Bedford School at the age of A pupil at the school from to , according to Goldsmith he found it "extremely unpleasant" and most of his fellow students "bored him", but his younger brother Kevin, who was also there, was "some consolation",[12] while Brown claims that "he seemed to adjust easily to life" there.[13] In , he went to Emmanuel College, Cambridge, with a scholarship.[14][15]

At Cambridge, Bernal read both mathematics and science for a Bachelor of Arts degree in , which he followed by another year of natural sciences.

He taught himself the theory of space groups, including the quaternion method, which became the mathematical basis of a lengthy paper on crystal structure for which he won a joint prize with Ronald G.W. Norrish in his third year. At Cambridge, he also became known as "Sage", a nickname given to him about by a young woman working in Charles Kay Ogden's Bookshop at the corner of Bridge Street.[16]

Career and research

After his graduation, Bernal began research under William Henry Bragg at the Davy Faraday Laboratory at the Royal Institution[17] in London.

In he determined the structure of graphite (the Bernal stacking describes the registry of two graphite planes) and also did work on the crystal structure of bronze.[17] His strength was in analysis as much as experimental method, and his mathematical and practical treatment of determining crystal structure was widely studied, but he also developed an X-ray spectro-goniometer.[18]

In , he was appointed as the first lecturer in Structural Crystallography at Cambridge, becoming the assistant director of the Cavendish Laboratory in There, he started applying his crystallographic techniques to organic molecules, starting with oestrin and sterol compounds including cholesterol in , forcing a radical change of thinking among sterol chemists.[19] While at Cambridge, he analysed vitamin B1 (), pepsin (), vitamin D2 (), the sterols () and the tobacco mosaic virus ().[17]

He also worked on the structure of liquid water, showing the boomerang shape of its molecule ().

It was in Bernal's research group that after a year working with Tiny Powell at Oxford, Dorothy Hodgkin continued her early research career.[2] Together, in , they took the first X-ray photographs of hydrated protein crystals using the trick of bathing the crystals in their mother liquor, giving one of the first glimpses of the world of molecular structure that underlies living things.[20]Max Perutz arrived as a student from Vienna in and started the work on haemoglobin that would occupy him most of his career.

However, Bernal was refused fellowships at Emmanuel and Christ's and tenure by Ernest Rutherford, who disliked him,[21] and in , Bernal became Professor of Physics at Birkbeck College, University of London, a department that had been brought to the first rank by Patrick Blackett. The same year, he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society.[7] After World War II, he established Birkbeck's Biomolecular Research Laboratory in two Georgian houses in Torrington Square with 15 researchers.

It was there that Aaron Klug and Rosalind Franklin worked on tobacco mosaic virus, and Andrew Donald Booth developed some of the earliest computers to help with the computation.

His Guthrie lecture of concentrated on proteins as the basis of life, but it was Max Perutz, still at Cambridge, who developed the X-ray structural analysis of globular proteins in Britain.

In the early s, Bernal returned to the subject of the origin of life, analysing meteorites for evidence of complex molecules, and to the topic of the structure of liquids, which he talked about in his Bakerian lecture in [22]

Ministry of Home Security

In the early s, Bernal had been arguing for peace, but that changed after the Spanish Civil War started.

With the outbreak of World War II in , Bernal joined the Ministry of Home Security, where he brought in Solly Zuckerman to carry out the first proper analyses of the effects of enemy bombing and of explosions on animals and people. Their subsequent analysis of the effects of bombs on Birmingham and Kingston upon Hull showed that city bombing produced little disruption and production was affected only by direct hits on factories.

A supper for scientists organised by the Tots and Quots in Soho generated a multi-author book Science in War produced in a month by Allen Lane, one of the guests, arguing that science should be applied in every part of the war effort.[23]

From , he and Zuckerman served as scientific advisers to Lord Louis Mountbatten, the Chief of Combined Operations.[17] Bernal was able to argue on both sides of Project Habbakuk, Geoffrey Pyke's proposal to build huge aircraft landing platforms in the North Atlantic made of ice.

He rescued Max Perutz from internment, getting him to perform experiments on ice related to Habbakuk in a meat store freezer below Smithfield Meat Market.[24] This project indirectly marked his divergence from Zuckerman, when he was recalled from a joint tour of the Middle East investigating the co-operation of army and air force, but the tour established Zuckerman's reputation as a military scientist.[25]

Operation Overlord and D-Day

After the disaster of the Dieppe raid, Bernal was determined that its mistakes not be repeated in Operation Overlord.

He demonstrated the advantages of an artificial harbour to the participants of the Quebec Conference in , as the only British scientist present. On 3 June , he was commissioned a temporary lieutenant (Special Branch) in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve (RNVR).[26] His main contribution to the Normandy landings was the detailed mapping of the beaches, which had to be done without attracting any German attention.[27] His knowledge of the area stemmed from research in English libraries, personal experience (he had visited Arromanches on previous holidays) and aerial surveys.[28]

At Bernal's memorial service, Zuckerman downplayed Bernal's part in the Normandy landings and said that he was not cleared for the highest levels of security.[29] Given Bernal's Marxist and pro-Soviet sympathies, it is perhaps remarkable that there has never been any suggestion that he fed any information in that direction.[30] However, Brown provides evidence[31][32] of Bernal's contributions to the preparation and the success of the invasion.

After assisting in the preparations for D-Day with work on the structure of the proposed landing sites and the bocage countryside beyond, Bernal landed, according to C. P. Snow, at Normandy on the afternoon of D-Day+1 in the uniform of an Instructor-Lieutenant Royal Navy to record the effectiveness of the plans. He also assisted boats floundering on the rocks by using his knowledge of the area but said, "I committed the frightful solecism of not knowing which was port and which side was starboard".[33]

Publications

Bernal's work The World, the Flesh and the Devil has been called "the most brilliant attempt at scientific prediction ever made" by Arthur C.

Clarke.[34] It is famous for having been the first to propose the so-called Bernal sphere, a type of space habitat intended for permanent residence. The second chapter explores radical changes to human bodies and intelligence and the third discusses the impact of these on society.

In The Social Function of Science () he argued that science was not an individual pursuit of abstract knowledge and that the support of research and development should be dramatically increased.

Eugene Garfield, originator of the Science Citation Index, said "his idea of a centralized reprint center was in my thoughts when I first proposed the as yet nonexistent SCI in Science in "[35]

Science in History () is a monumental four-volume attempt to analyse the interaction between science and society.

The Origin of Life () gives the current ideas from Oparin and Haldane onwards.

Other publications include

  • Bernal, J. D. (). "On the Interpretation of X-Ray, Single Crystal, Rotation Photographs". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. (): – BibcodeRSPSAB. doi/rspa
  • The World, the Flesh & the Devil: An Enquiry into the Future of the Three Enemies of the Rational Soul () Jonathan Cape.

    Scholar Robert Scholes calls this a "book of breathtaking scientific speculation" that "is probably the single most influential source of science fiction ideas."[36]

  • Aspects of Dialectical Materialism () with E. F. Carritt, Ralph Fox, Hyman Levy, John Macmurray, R. Page Arnot
  • The Social Function of Science () Faber & Faber
  • Science and the Humanities () pamphlet
  • The Freedom of Necessity ()
  • The Physical Basis of Life ()
  • Marx and Science () Marxism Today Series No.

    9

  • Science and Industry in the Nineteenth Century () Routledge.
  • Bernal, J. D. (). "Stalin as Scientist". Modern Quarterly. 8 (3).
  • Science in History () four volumes in later editions, The Emergence of Science; The Scientific and Industrial Revolutions; The Natural Sciences in Our Time; The Social Sciences: Conclusions.

    Faber & Faber

  • World without War ()
  • A Prospect of Peace ()
  • Need There Be Need? () pamphlet
  • The Origin of Life ()
  • Emergence of Science ()
  • The Extension of Man. A History of Physics before () M.I.T. Press also as A History of Classical Physics from Antiquity to the Quantum
  • Engels and Science, Labour Monthly pamphlet
  • After Twenty-five Years
  • Peace to the World, British Peace Committee pamphlet
  • Bernal, J.

    D. (). "The relation of microscopic structure to molecular structure". Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics. 1 (1): 81– doi/S PMID&#; S2CID&#;

  • Bernal, J. D. (). "The structure of water and its biological implications". Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology.

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  • 约翰·贝尔纳 - 维基百科，自由的百科全书

    • 19: 17– PMID&#;

  • Bernal, J. D. (). "The Use of Fourier Transforms in Protein Crystal Analysis". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. (): 71– BibcodeRSPSBB.

    Biography of william shakespeare He published extensively on the history of science. In addition, Bernal wrote popular books on science and society. His family was Irish, with a mix of Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and Sephardic Jewish on his father's side [ 8 ] his grandfather Jacob Genese, properly Ginesi, had adopted the family name Bernal of his paternal grandmother around Bernal was educated in England first for one term at Stonyhurst College , which he hated and so was moved to Bedford School at the age of A pupil at the school from to , according to Goldsmith he found it "extremely unpleasant" and most of his fellow students "bored him", but his younger brother Kevin, who was also there, was "some consolation", [ 12 ] while Brown claims that "he seemed to adjust easily to life" there.

    doi/rspb PMID&#; S2CID&#;

  • Bernal, J. D. (). "Phase Determination in the X-Ray Diffraction Patterns of Complex Crystals and its Application to Protein Structure". Nature. (): – BibcodeNaturB. doi/a0. PMID&#; S2CID&#;

Political activism

Raised as a Catholic, Bernal became a socialist in Cambridge as a result of a long night arguing with a friend.

He also became an atheist.[37] According to one reviewer, "This conversion, as complete as St. Paul's on the road to Damascus, goes some way to account for, but not excuse, Bernal's blind allegiance for the rest of his life, to the Soviet Union".[38] He joined the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) in [39] His membership evidently lapsed when he returned to Cambridge in and was not renewed until ,[40] and he may have lost his card again shortly afterward.[39]

Bernal became a prominent intellectual in political life, particularly in the s.

He attended the famous meeting on the history of science, where he met the Soviets Nikolai Bukharin, and Boris Hessen who gave an influential Marxist account of the work of Isaac Newton. That meeting fundamentally changed his world view and he maintained sympathy for the Soviet Union and Joseph Stalin. In , Bernal published The Social Function of Science, probably the earliest text on the sociology of science.

After World War II, although Bernal had been involved in evaluating the effects of atomic attacks against the Soviet Union,[40] he supported the World Congress of Intellectuals for Peace organised in Communist Poland in Afterwards, he wrote a letter to the New Statesman warning that the US was preparing "a war for complete world domination".[41] Consequently, when Bernal was invited to a world peace conference in New York in February , his visa was refused.

However, he was allowed into France in April for the World Congress of the Partisans of Peace, with Frédéric Joliot-Curie as president and Bernal as vice-president. The following year the organisation changed its name to the World Peace Council.

On 20 September , after his return from giving a speech strongly critical of Western countries at a peace conference in Moscow, the Evening Star newspaper of Ipswich published an interview with Bernal in which he endorsed Soviet agriculture and the "proletarian science" of Trofim Lysenko.[28] The Lysenko affair had erupted in August , when Stalin authorised Lysenko's theory of plant genetics as official Soviet orthodoxy, and he refused any deviation.

Bernal and the whole British scientific left were damaged by his support for Lysenko's theory, even after many scientists had abandoned their sympathy for the Soviet Union.

Under pressure from the burgeoning Cold War, the president of British Royal Society had resigned from the Soviet Academy of Sciences in November [42] In November , the British Association for the Advancement of Science removed Bernal from membership of its council.[43] Membership in British radical science groups quickly declined.

Unlike some of his socialist colleagues, Bernal persisted in defending the Soviet position on Lysenko. He publicly refused to accept the gaping fissures that the dispute revealed between the study of natural science and dialectical materialism.[44]

In November , Pablo Picasso, a fellow communist, en route to a Soviet-sponsored[45] World Peace Congress in Sheffield created a mural in Bernal's flat at the top of No.&#;22 Torrington Square.[46] In , it became part of the Wellcome Trust's collection[47][48] for £,

Throughout the s, Bernal maintained a faith in the Soviet Union as a vehicle for the creation of a socialist scientific utopia.

In , he was awarded the Stalin Peace Prize.[49] From to , he was president of the World Peace Council.

John desmond bernal biography of william John Desmond Bernal was born in Nenagh, Co. He was the eldest of three boys. His father was a well-off farmer who sent his son to be educated in England, first at the Catholic public school, Stoneyhurst in Lancashire, then to Bedford, a middle-class Protestant school. He won a major scholarship to EmmanuelCollege, Cambridge when he was eighteen. From this early age he exhibited the personality, which was to characterise his whole of his career, at times non-conformist, even maverick, but with a belief in the basic goodness of mankind.

Awards and honours

Bernal was awarded the Royal Medal in ,[50] the Guthrie lecture in ,[51][52] the Stalin Peace Prize in ,[49] the Grotius Gold Medal in [38] and the Bakerian Lecture in [22][53]

Bernal was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in [7] A fictional portrait of Bernal appears in the novel The Search, an early work of his friend C.

P. Snow. He was also said[by whom?] to be the inspiration for the character Tengal in The Holiday by Stevie Smith. The Bernal Lecture and its successor the Wilkins-Bernal-Medawar Lecture Medal and Lecture were named in his honour.[52]

Legacy

The Bernal Building at the University of Limerick was named in his honour.

He is the eponym of the John Desmond Bernal Prize.

Bernal's brass microscope, in the possession of his great-grandson, was restored in an episode of the BBC Television series The Repair Shop shown in April [54]

Personal life

Bernal had two children – Mike (–) and Egan (b)[6] – with his wife Agnes Eileen Sprague (–), a secretary, who was usually referred to as Eileen.[55] He married Sprague on 21 June , the day after having been awarded his BA degree.

Bernal was 21, Sprague Sprague was described as an active socialist and their marriage as 'open' which they both lived up to 'with great gusto'.[56]

In the early s he had a brief intimate relationship with chemist Dorothy Hodgkin, whose scientific research work he mentored.[2][57] He had a long-term relationship with the artists' patron Margaret Gardiner.

Their son Martin Bernal (–)[58] was a professor in the Department of Government at Cornell University and author of the controversial Afrocentric work Black Athena.[59][60] Margaret referred to herself as "Mrs. Bernal", though the two never married.

  • John desmond bernal biography of william hamilton
  • John desmond bernal biography of william blake
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    • Eileen is mentioned as his widow in [55]

    He also had a child (Jane, born ) with Margot Heinemann.[6]

    Writings

    References

    1. ^"William Bragg - the Mathematics Genealogy Project".
    2. ^ abcHodgkin, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot ().

      X-ray crystallography and the chemistry of the sterols. (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge. EThOS&#; Archived from the original on 13 June Retrieved 30 November

    3. ^"Alan Mackay - the Mathematics Genealogy Project".
    4. ^"Max Perutz - the Mathematics Genealogy Project".
    5. ^Images of Bernal at the National Portrait Gallery
    6. ^ abcGoldsmith , p.&#;
    7. ^ abcdHodgkin, D.

      M. C. (). "John Desmond Bernal. 10 May September ". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 26: 16– doi/rsbm

    8. ^Bevis Marks Records, Vols 1–6 of the Spanish and Portuguese Jewish Congregation, London; Miriam Rodrigues Pereira, ed.
    9. ^Brown, Andrew (). J. D. Bernal: the sage of science.

      Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN&#;.

    10. ^Brown , pp.&#;1–3
    11. ^J. D. Bernal: The Sage of Science. OUP Oxford. 24 November ISBN&#;.
    12. ^Goldsmith , p.&#;24
    13. ^Brown , p.&#;9
    14. ^Goldsmith , p.&#;26
    15. ^Boylan, Henry (). A Dictionary of Irish Biography, 3rd Edition.

      Dublin: Gill and MacMillan. p.&#; ISBN&#;.

    16. ^Goldsmith , p.&#;27
    17. ^ abcdJohn Dintih; Derek Gjertsen, eds. (). A Dictionary of Scientists.

      John desmond bernal biography of william hamilton: Bernal, John Desmond (–71), scientist, was born at Nenagh, Co. Tipperary, eldest of three sons and two daughters of Samuel George Bernal, farmer, of Brookwatson, Nenagh, and his wife Elizabeth Miller, daughter of a Presbyterian minister in San José, California.

      Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN&#;.

    18. ^Brown , p.&#;55,61
    19. ^Brown , p.&#;94 Goldsmith reports Zuckerman and Crowther were surprised Bernal was not awarded a Nobel for that since it corrected the structure for which the award had been made.
    20. ^Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
    21. ^Brown , pp.&#;90, ,
    22. ^ abThe structure of liquids.

      Bakerian Lecture. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A ,

    23. ^Brown , pp.&#;–9,
    24. ^Brown , pp.&#;–20, –7
    25. ^Brown , pp.&#;–4
    26. ^"No. ". The London Gazette. 30 June p.&#;
    27. ^Brown , pp.&#;–
    28. ^ abGoldsmith , pp.&#;–
    29. ^Brown , pp.&#;–
    30. ^Brown , p.&#;
    31. ^de Charadevian, Soraya ().

      Brown, Andrew (ed.). "Advocating Science for the People". Science. (): – doi/science ISSN&#; JSTOR&#; S2CID&#;

    32. ^"Solly Zuckerman and J D Bernal, Times review by Christopher Coker of both Andrew Brown's biography of Bernal and Bernard Donovan's biography of Zukerman, 8 February ". The Times.

      London. Archived from the original on 21 June Retrieved 7 November

    33. ^Goldsmith , pp.&#;–
    34. ^Clarke, Arthur C. (). Greetings, Carbon-Based Bipeds. St Martin's Griffin, New York. cited in Brown , p.&#;70
    35. ^Eugene Garfield. "Tracing the Influence of JD Bernal on the World of Science through Citation Analysis"(PDF).

      Retrieved 10 March

    36. ^Scholes, Robert; Rabkin, Eric S. (). "Bibliography III: Science Backgrounds". Science Fiction: History, Science, Vision. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN&#;.
    37. ^Haugen, Peter ().

      John desmond bernal biography of william hurt British physicist. His pioneering work in the field of X-ray crystallography enabled the structure of many complex molecules to be elucidated. Bernal came from an Irish farming family. Brought up as a Catholic, he was educated at Stonyhurst and Cambridge, where he abandoned Catholicism and became an active member of the Communist Party. When he returned to Cambridge in he planned a research programme to reveal the complete three-dimensional structure of complex molecules, including those found exclusively in living organisms, by the techniques of X-ray crystallography.

      "4: ". Biology: Decade by Decade. Infobase Publishing. p.&#; ISBN&#;.

    38. ^ abWitkowski, J. A. (). "J. D. Bernal: The Sage of Science by Andrew Brown (), Oxford University Press". The FASEB Journal. 21 (2): – doi/fjufm.
    39. ^ abGoldsmith , p.&#;31
    40. ^ abBrown , p.&#;
    41. ^J.D.

      Bernal (18 September ). "Letter". New Statesman. Vol.&#;XXXVI. pp.&#;– quoted in Brown , p.&#;

    42. ^Brown , p.&#;
    43. ^Goldsmith , pp.&#; et seq
    44. ^Goldsmith , pp.&#; et seq
    45. ^Eric Hobsbawm, Interesting Times, p.&#;
    46. ^Goldsmith , p.&#;picture
    47. ^The night that Picasso was a little plastered, The Times, 2 April
    48. ^Bernal's Picasso goes on show in London at Wellcome Collection, Culture24, UK, 14 January
    49. ^ abYearbook of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia (in Russian).

      Moscow: Sovetskaya Enciklopediya.

    50. ^"Royal Medals". London: Royal Society. Archived from the original on 25 September
    51. ^The physical basis of life. (The Guthrie Lecture of the Physical Society.) Proc. phys. Soc. Lond. A 62, Also published () Routledge & Kegan Paul.
    52. ^ ab"Wilkins-Bernal-Medawar Medal and Lecture &#; Royal Society".

      30 November

    53. ^Hodgkin, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot (). "John Desmond Bernal, 10 May - 15 September ". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 26: 16– doi/rsbm
    54. ^"Live Series Episode 4". The Repair Shop. Series Episode 4. 12 April BBC Television. Retrieved 12 April
    55. ^ abBrief biography of Bernal at the National Portrait Gallery, London
    56. ^Brown, A.

      P. (). "J D Bernal: The sage of science". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 57 (1): 61– BibcodeJPhCSB. doi//57/1/

    57. ^Brown , p.&#;
    58. ^Oxford Dictionary of National Biography entry for Margaret Gardiner
    59. ^Morgan, Janet (5 January ). "Margaret Gardiner, obituary in The Guardian, 5 January ".
    60. ^"Margaret Gardiner, obituary by Nchima Trust".

      Archived from the original on 3 March Retrieved 28 February

    Sources

    • Brown, Andrew (). J D Bernal—The Sage of Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

      John desmond bernal biography of william shakespeare

      Tipperary, Ireland , d. Education and early career. Bernal was educated in England first at Stonyhurst College[2] where according to biographer Maurice Goldsmith there was no science taught till the sixth form. Because of this he was moved to Bedford School at the age of thirteen[2]. There, according to Goldsmith, for five years from he found it 'extremely unpleasant' and most of his fellow students 'bored him' though his younger brother Kevin who was also there was 'some consolation'[2] In he went to Emmanuel College, Cambridge University with a mathematical scholarship[2][3].

      ISBN&#;.

    • John Finch; 'A Nobel Fellow on Every Floor', Medical Research Council , pp, ISBN&#;; this book is all about the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge.
    • Goldsmith, Maurice (). Sage: A Life of J. D. Bernal. London: Hutchinson. ISBN&#;.
    • The Visible College () Gary Werskey, on Bernal, J.

      B. S. Haldane, Lancelot Hogben, Hyman Levy and Joseph Needham, 2nd edition

    • Swann, Brenda; Aprahamian, Francis, eds. (). J. D. Bernal: A Life in Science and Politics. Verso. ISBN&#;.
    • Oxford Dictionary of National Biography: 'Bernal, (John) Desmond (–)’ by Robert Olby, first published Sept , words, with portrait illustration
    • Mackay, Alan L.

      (). "J D Bernal (–) in perspective". J. Biosci. Vol.&#;28, no.&#;5 (published September ). pp.&#;– doi/BF PMID&#;

    • Surridge, C. (). "50 years of biomolecular structure at Birkbeck: Bernal's legacy". Nature Structural Biology. 6 (1) (published January ): 13–4. doi/ PMID&#; S2CID&#;
    • Breathnach, C.

      S. (). "Desmond Bernal and his role in the biological exploitation of X-ray crystallography". Journal of Medical Biography. Vol.&#;3, no.&#;4 (published November ). pp.&#;– PMID&#;

    • Hodgkin, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot (). "John Desmond Bernal, 10 May - 15 September ". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society.

      26. Royal Society: 16– doi/rsbm ISSN&#;

    External links